Land Surface Temperature Variability in Africa: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis with a Focus on Ghana
Keywords:
Land Surface Temperature (LST), Climate Variability, Sub-Saharan Africa, Systematic Review, Meta-AnalysisAbstract
Land Surface Temperature has become an essential variable for comprehending climatic variability, urban heat islands, and ecological resilience, especially in Africa, where growing urbanization and deforestation exacerbate thermal stress. This study conducts the inaugural systematic review and meta-analysis of land surface temperature variability throughout Africa, concentrating specifically on Ghana. Following PRISMA guidelines, 67 peer-reviewed and grey literature sources published from 2000 to 2025 were synthesized to evaluate spatio-temporal land surface temperature changes, analytical methods, and policy implications. Results reveal a continent-wide warming trend characterized by significant diurnal asymmetry, highlighted by ongoing nighttime warming. Urban areas like Accra and Kumasi exhibit considerable heat island effects, primarily due to the reduction of greenery and the proliferation of impermeable surfaces. Vegetation and aquatic environments constantly exhibit cooling effects, whereas barren land and developed regions record the highest land surface temperature readings. Landsat imagery predominates in Ghanaian research for its geographical resolution, while MODIS products are appreciated for their temporal consistency; nonetheless, the integration of multi-sensor methodologies is still constrained. The distinctive vulnerabilities of Ghana's deforestation, uncontrolled urban development, and coastal susceptibility highlight the necessity for climate-sensitive design. This study identifies significant research deficiencies, such as the inadequate representation of coastal dynamics, health implications, and equity factors in urban heat reduction efforts. The findings establish a foundation for adaptive land-use planning, climate-smart agriculture, and urban resilience methods, delivering crucial insights for Ghana and Africa's overarching climate adaptation initiatives.
References
Abdulai, A.G., Bawole, J.N., Sakyi, E.K., 2018. Rethinking Persistent Poverty in Northern Ghana: The Primary of Policy and Politics over Geography. Politics & Policy, 46 (2), 233-262. https://doi.org/10.1111/polp.12250.
Abera, T.A., Heiskanen, J., Maeda, E.E., Pellikka, P.K.E., 2020. Land Surface Temperature Trend and its Drivers in East Africa. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 125, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020JD033446.
Abera, T.A., Heiskanen, J., Pellikka, P., Maeda, E.E., 2018. Rainfall-Vegetation Interaction Regulates Temperature Anomalies During Extreme Dry Events in the Horn of Africa. Global and Planetary Change, 167, 35-45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2018.05.002.
Adomako, T., Ampadu, B., 2015. The Impact of Agricultural Practices on Environmental Sustainability in Ghana: A Review. Journal of Sustainable Development 8 (8), 70-85. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jsd.v8n8p70.
Aduko, J., Yakubu, M.A., Anokye, K., 2025. Assessing the Environmental Impacts of Urban Sprawl on Vegetation Cover and Ecosystem Integrity in Wa Municipality, Ghana. World Development Sustainability 6 (100225), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wds.2025.100225.
Afuye, G.A., Nduku, L., Kalumba, A.M., Santos, C.A.G., Orimoloye, I.R., Ojeh, V.N., Thamaga, K.H., Sibandze, P., 2024. Global Trend Assessment of Land Use and Land Cover Changes: A Systematic Approach to Future Research Development and Planning. Journal of King Saud University – Science 36 (103262), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2024.103262.
Aka, K.S.R., Akpavi, S., Dibi, N.D.H., Kabo-Bah, A.T., Gyilbag, A., Boamah, E., 2023. Toward Understanding Land Use Land Cover Changes and their Effects on Land Surface Temperature in Yam Production Area, Cote d’Ivoire, Gontougo Region, using Remote Sensing and Machine Learning Tools (Google Earth Engine). Frontiers in Remote Sensing 4 (1221757), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.3389/frsen.2023.1221757.
Akinyemi, F.O., Ikanyeng, M., Muro, J., 2019. Land Cover Change Effects on Land Surface Temperature Trends in an African Urbanizing Dryland Region. City and Environment Interactions 4 (100029), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cacint.2020.100029.
Asante, F.A., Amuakwa-Mensah, F., 2015. Climate Change and Variability in Ghana: Stocktaking. Climate 3, 78-99. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli3010078.
Awuni, S., Adarkwah, F., Ofori, B.D., Purwestri, R.C., Bernal, D.C.H., Hajek, M., 2023. Managing the Challenges of Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies in Ghana. Heliyon 9 (e15491), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e15491.
Baffour, A.A., 2024. Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation Strategies for Ghana’s Coastal Population: A Qualitative Inquiry. Climate Change, 10(e6cc1033):1-14. https://doi.org/10.54905/disssi.v10i28.e6cc1033.
Bartkowiak, P., Ventura, B., Jacob, A., Castelli, M., 2024. A Copernicus-based Evapotranspiration Dataset at 100m Spatial Resolution over Four Mediterranean Basins. Earth System Science Data 16, 4709-4734. https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-4709-2024.
Benaomar, K., Outzourhit, A., 2024. Exploring the complexities of urban forms and urban heat islands: insights from the literature, methodologies, and current status in Morocco. Atmosphere 15 (7), 822.
Buo, I., Sagris, V., Burdun, I., Uuemaa, E., 2021. Estimating the expansion of urban areas and urban heat islands (UHI) in Ghana: a case study. Natural Hazards 105 (2), 1299-1321.
Buo, I.N.K., 2019. Urban Sprawl Dynamics and Urban Heat Islands (UHI) in Ghana. Published MSc Thesis, Faculty of Science and Technology, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, Department of Geography, University of Tartu, Estonia, 49 pp.
Chudasama, B., Porwal, A., Kreuzer, O.P., Butera, K., 2015. Geology, Geodynamics and Orogenic Gold Prospectivity Modelling of the Paleoproterozoic Kumasi Basin, Ghana, West Africa. Ore Geology Reviews 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2015.08.012.
Cobbinah, P.B., Poku-Boansi, M., Peprah, C., 2017. Urban Environmental Problems in Ghana. Environmental Development 23, 33-46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2017.05.001.
Das, M , Das, A., 2020. Assessing the Relationship Between Local Climatic Zones (LCZs) and Land Surface Temperature (LST) – A Case Study of Sriniketan-Santiniketan Planning Area (SSPA), West Bengal, India. Urban Climate 32 (100591), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2020.100591.
De Pinto, A., Demirag, U., Haruna, A., Koo, J., Asamoah, M., 2012. Climate Change, Agriculture, and Foodcrop Production in Ghana. Ghana Strategy Support Program, International Food Policy Research Institute, Policy Note No. 3, 1-7.
Degefu, M.A., Argaw, M., Feyisa, G.L., Degefa, S., 2023. Dynamics of Green Spaces-Land Surface Temperature Intensity Nexus in Cities of Ethiopia. Heliyon 9 (e13274), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e13274.
Enu, K.B., Zingraff-Hamed, A., Appiah, D.O., Pauleit, S., 2024. Narrowing Down the Drivers of Flood Risk in Medium-Sized Sub-Saharan African Cities: Insights from the Greater Kumasi Metropolitan Area, Ghana. Hydrological Sciences Journal 69 (14), 1897-1912. https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2024.2401605.
Enu, K.B., Zingraff-Hamed, A., Rahman, M.A., Stringer, L.C., Pauleit, S., 2023. Review Article: Potential of Nature-Based Solutions to Mitigate Hydro-Meteorological Risks in Sub-Saharan Africa. Natural Hazards and Earth System Science 23, 481-505. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-23-481-2023.
Eshun, I., Botchway, T.P., Payne, P.E., 2021. Human and Environmental Rights Vis-À-Vis the Impacts of Unregulated Artisanal Small-Scale Mining. American Journal of Environment and Sustainable Development 6 (3), 94-106.
Fotso‐Nguemo, T.C., Weber, T., Diedhiou, A., Chouto, S., Vondou, D.A., Rechid, D., Jacob, D., 2023. Projected impact of increased global warming on heat stress and exposed population over Africa. Earth's Future 11 (1), e2022EF003268.
Frimpong, B.F., Koranteng, A., Molkenthin, F., 2022. Analysis of Temperature Variability Utilising Mann-Kendall and Sen’s Slope Estimator Tests in the Accra and Kumasi Metropolis in Ghana. Environmental Systems Research 11 (24), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40068-022-00269-1.
Grieco, E., Bombelli, A., Adeyemi, C., Kebe, I., Sylla, M.B., Kim, D.G., Beck, J., Acosta, M., Lorencova, E., 2019. Report on Needs and Gaps in Africa in Terms of Data, Knowledge and RI with Recommendations for a Joint EU-Africa Research & STI Agenda on GHG Observations Focusing on Land Use and Land Use Change Under a Changing Climate. Published Technical Report, Greenhouse Gas Observations & Climate-Smart Agriculture, 84 pp.
Guo, L., Di, L., Zhang, C., Lin, L., Chen, F., Molla, A., 2022. Evaluating Contributions of Urbanization and Global Climate Change to Urban Land Surface Temperature Change: A Case Study in Lagos, Nigeria. Scientific Reports 12 (14168), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-18193-w.
Gyasi-Addo, J , Bennadji, A., 2020b. A Procedure for Assessing UHI Intensity in the Central Business District of Accra. Journal of Scientific Research & Reports 26 (5), 42-61.
Gyasi-Addo, J A., 2021. Evaluation of the Effect of Urbanization on Urban Thermal Behaviour using Urban Heat Island Indicators: The Case of the CBD of Accra. Published PhD Thesis, Robert Gordon University, 386 pp. https://doi.org/10.48526/rgu-wt-1603337.
Gyasi-Addo, J.A., Bennadji, A., 2020a. Investigating the Major Causes of Morphological Transformations in the CBD of Accra and the Impact on Urban Heat Island Intensity. In Scott, L, and Neilson, CJ (Eds) Proceedings of the 36th Annual ARCOM Conference, 7-8 September 2020, UK, Association of Researchers in Construction Management, 566-575.
Gyile, D.N., Asare, A., Osei-Gyabaah, A.P., Anaafo, D., 2025. Assessment of Land Use and Land Cover Changes and their Impact on Land Surface Temperature in Greater Accra, Ghana. Scientific African, 29 (e02826), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2025.e02826.
Haltermann, I., Tischler, J., 2020. Environmental Change and African Societies. Climate and Culture, BRILL, Leiden, Boston, 5, 368 pp.
Hazaymeh, K., Hassan, Q.K., 2015. Fusion of MODIS and Landsat-8 surface temperature images: A new approach. PLoS One 10 (3), e0117755.
Huang, K., Li, X., Liu, X., Seto, K.C., 2019. Projecting global urban land expansion and heat island intensification through 2050. Environmental Research Letters 14 (11), 114037.
Huryna, H., Cohen, Y., Karnieli, A., Panov, N., Kustas, W.P., Agam, N., 2019. Evaluation of TsHARP Utility for Thermal Sharpening of Sentinel-3 Satellites Images Using Sentinel-2 Visual Imagery. Remote Sensing 11 (2304), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11192304.
Imhoff, M.L., Zhang, P., Wolfe, R.E., Bounoua, L., 2010. Remote Sensing of the Urban Heat Island Effect Across Biomes in the Continental USA. Remote Sensing of Environment, 114:504-513. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2009.10.008.
Imran, H.M., Shammas, M.I., Rahman, A., Jacobs, S.J., Ng, A.W.M., Muthukumaran, S., 2021. Causes, modelling and mitigation of urban heat island: a review. Earth Sciences 10 (6), 244-264.
Jael, Y.P.D., 2023. Urban Greening and its Related Diseases in Sub-Saharan Africa. Published MA Thesis, Department of Geography and Regional Planning, Faculty of Social Sciences, College of Humanities and Legal Studies, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana, 97pp.
Johnson, A., 2024. Assessing the Impacts of Climate Change of Coastal Winneba – Ghana. Published MSc Thesis, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Geosciences, Environmental and Spatial Planning, University of Porto, Portugal, 160 pp.
Klein, T., Anderegg, W.R., 2021. A vast increase in heat exposure in the 21st century is driven by global warming and urban population growth. Sustainable Cities and Society 73, 103098.
Kwofie, S., Nyamekye, C., Boamah, L.A., Adjei, F.O., Arthur, R., Agyapong, E., 2022. Urban Growth Nexus to Land Surface Temperature in Ghana. Cogent Engineering, 9(1):2143045. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311916.2022.2143045.
Li, F., Yigitcanlar, T., Nepal, M., Thanh, K.N., Dur, F., 2024. A Novel Urban Heat Vulnerability Analysis: Integrating Machine Learning and Remote Sensing for Enhanced Insights. Remote Sensing 16(3032), 1-31. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16163032.
Li, X., Stringer, L.C., Dallimer, M., 2022. The impacts of Urbanisation and Climate Change on the Urban Thermal Environment in Africa. Climate 10 (164), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli10110164.
Li, ZL, Wu, H, Duan, SB, Zhao, W., Ren, H., Liu, X., Leng, P., Tang, R., Ye, X., Zhu, J., Sun, Y., Si, M., Liu, M., Li, J., Zhang, X., Shang, G., Tang, B-H., Yan, G., Zhou, C., 2023. Satellite Remote Sensing of Global Land Surface Temperature: Definition, Methods, Products, and Applications. Reviews of Geophysics 61 (1), e2022RG000777. https://doi.org/10.1029/2022RG000777.
Mante, Y.O., 2020. Assessing the performance of flood recharged aquifer storage and recovery technology for dry season irrigation in northern Ghana. Signature 7, 09-2020.
Measho, S., Li, F., Chen, G., Hirwa, H., 2023. Characterizing Cropland Patterns Across North-East Africa Using Time Series Vegetation Indices. Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences, 128 (e2022JG007075), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1029/2022JG007075.
Mensah, A.K., Mahiri, I.O., Owusu, O., Mireku, O.D., Wireko, I., Kissi, E.A., 2015. Environmental Impacts of Mining: A Study of Mining Communities in Ghana. Applied Ecology and Environmental Sciences 3 (3), 81-94. https://doi.org/10.12691/aees-3-3-3.
Miao, Q., Peng, J., Wang, Y., 2021. Resolution Enhancement of Remotely Sensed Land Surface Temperature: Current Status and Perspectives. Remote Sensing 13 (1306), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13071306.
Mo, Y., Xu, Y., Chen, H., Zhu, S., 2021. A Review of Reconstructing Remotely Sensed Land Surface Temperature Under Cloudy Conditions. Remote Sensing 13 (2838), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13142838.
Mohajerani, A., Bakaric, J., Jeffrey-Bailey, T., 2017. The urban heat island effect, its causes, and mitigation, with reference to the thermal properties of asphalt concrete. Journal of Environmental Management 197, 522-538.
Mushore, T.D., Mutanga, O., Odindi, J., Dube, T., 2017. Linking major shifts in land surface temperatures to long term land use and land cover changes: A case of Harare, Zimbabwe. Urban Climate 20, 120-134.
Mushore, T.D., Mutanga, O., Odindi, J., 2022. Determining the Influence of Long-Term Urban Growth on Surface Urban Heat Islands Using Local Climate Zones and Intensity Analysis Techniques. Remote Sensing 14 (2060), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14092060.
Nega, W., Balew, A., 2022. The Relationship Between Land Use Land Cover and Land Surface Temperature Using Remote Sensing: Systematic Reviews of Studies Globally over the Past 5 Years. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-19997-z.
NourEldeen, N., Mao, K., Yuan, Z., Shen, X., Xu, T., Qin, Z., 2020. Analysis of the Spatiotemporal Change in Land Surface Temperature for a Long-Term Sequence in Africa (2003-2017). Remote Sensing 12 (488), 1-24. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12030488.
Oduro, C., Sian, K.T.C.L.K., Haga, D.F.T., Babaousmail, H., Ayugi, B.O., Wu, Y., Dalu, T., Wu, N., 2025. The Influence of Land Surface Temperature on Ghana’s Climate Variability and Implications for Sustainable Development. Scientific Reports 15(2595), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-86585-9.
Olawoyin, R , Acheampong, P K., 2023. The Dynamics of Land-Use/Land-Cover and Land Surface Temperature Changes in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area, Ghana 1986-2020. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science (IOSR-JHSS) 28 (11), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.9790/0837-2811040116.
Orimoloye, I.R., Mazinyo, S.P., Nel, W., Kalumba, A.M., 2018. Spatiotemporal Monitoring of Land Surface Temperature and Estimated Radiation using Remote Sensing: Human Health Implications for East London, South Africa. Environmental Earth Sciences 77 (77), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-08-7252-6.
Peprah, M.S., Awase, R.Q., Odoom, A., Mwin, M.A., 2025c. Land Surface Phenology for Africa – A Case of the Republic of Ghana. Journal of Geomatics 19 (1), 117-132. https://doi.org/10.58825/jog.2025.19.1.226.
Peprah, M.S., Larbi, E.K., Appau, P.O., Mwin, M.A., 2025a. Evaluation of Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) and Multivariate Adaptive Regression Splines (MARS) for Monthly Mean Land Surface Temperature (LST) Modelling – A Case Study of Aowin District, The Republic of Ghana. Journal of Geomatics 19 (1), 49-68. https://doi.org/10.58825/jog.2025.19.1.185.
Peprah, M.S., Odoom, A., Mwin, M.A., 2025b. Land Degradation Neutrality for Africa – A Case of Niger Republic. International Journal of Earth Sciences Knowledge and Applications 7(1), 52-62.
Piao, S., Wang, X., Park, T., Chen, C., Lian, X., He, Y., Bjerke, J.W., Chen, A., Ciasis, P., Tommervik, H., Nemani, R.R., Myeni, R.B., 2019. Characteristics, Drivers and Feedbacks of Global Greening. Nature Reviews: Earth & Environment 1, 14-27. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-019-0001-x.
Reiners, P., Sobrino, J., Kuenzer, C., 2023. Satellite-Derived Land Surface Temperature Dynamics in the Context of Global Change – A Review. Remote Sensing 15 (1857), 1-33. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15071857.
Rohat, G., Flacke, J., Dosio, A., Dao, H., Van Maarseveen, M., 2019. Projections of human exposure to dangerous heat in African cities under multiple socioeconomic and climate scenarios. Earth's Future 7 (5), 528-546.
Tetteh, Y.D.A., Akponzele, R., Boafo, H.K., 2025. Integrating Urban Green Spaces in Settlement Upgrading: A Systematic Review from Sub-Saharan Africa. International Journal of Environment and Climate Change 15 (8), 77-91. https://doi.org/10.9734/ijecc/2025/v15i84957.
Urdiales-Flores, D., Zittis, G., Hadjinicolaou, P., Osipov, S., Klingmuller, K., Mihaloulos, N., Kanakidou, M., Economou, T., Lelieveld, J., 2023. Drivers of Accelerated Warming in Mediterranean Climate-Type Regions. NPJ Climate and Atmospheric Science 6 (97), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41612-023-00423-1.
Watson, JEM, Evans, T, Venter, O, Williams, B., Tulloch, a., Stewart, C., Thompson, I., Ray, J.C., Murray, K., Salazar, a., McAlpine, C., Potapov, P., Walston, J., Robinson, J.G., Painter, M., Wilkie, D., Filardi, C., Laurance, W.F., Houghton, R.A., Maxwell, S., Grantham, H., Samper, C., Wang, S., Laestadius, L., Runting, R.K., Silva-Chávez, G.A., Ervin, J., Lindenmayer, D., 2018. The Exceptional Value of Intact Forest Ecosystems. Nature Ecology & Evolution 2, 599-610. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-018-0490-x.
Wemegah, C.S., Yamba, E.I., Aryee, J.N.A., Sam, F., Amekudzi, L.K., 2020. Assessment of Urban Heat Island Warming in the Greater Accra Region. Scientific African, 8 (e00426), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2020.e00426.
Weng, Q., 2009. Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing for Urban Climate and Environmental Studies: Methods, Applications, and Trends. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 64, 335-344. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2009.03.007.
Whitmee, S., Haines, A., Beyrer, C., Boltz, F., Capon, A.G., de Souza Dias, B.F., Ezeh, A., Frumkin, H., Gong, P., Head, P., Horton, R., Mace, G.M., Marten, R., Myers, S.S., Nishtar, S., Osofsky, S.A., Pattanayak, S.K., Pongsiri, M.J., Romanelli, C., Soucat, A., Vega, J., Yach, D., 2015. Safeguarding Human Health in the Anthropocene Epoch: Report of the Rockefeller Foundation-Lancet Commission on Planetary Health. Lancet 386, 1973-2028. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(15)60901-1.
Wong, N.H., Tan, C.L., Kolokotsa, D.D., Takebayashi, H., 2021. Greenery as a mitigation and adaptation strategy to urban heat. Nature Reviews Earth & Environment, 2 (3), 166-181.
Wu, M., Niu, Z., Wang, C., Wu, C., Wang, L., 2012. Use of MODIS and Landsat time series data to generate high-resolution temporal synthetic Landsat data using a spatial and temporal reflectance fusion model. Journal of Applied Remote Sensing 6 (1), 063507-063507.
Yamba, E.I., Aryee, J.N.A., Quansah, E., Davies, P., Wemegah, C.S., Osei, M.A., Ahiataku, M.A., Amekudzi, L.K., 2023. Revisiting the Agro-Climatic Zones of Ghana: A Re-Classification in Conformity with Climate Change and Variability. PLOS CLIMATE 2 (1), e0000023. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000023.
Yao, Y., Robb, L.J., 2000. Gold Mineralization in Palaeoproterozoic Granitoids at Obuasi, Ashanti Region, Ghana: Ore Geology, Geochemistry and Fluid Characteristics. South African Journal of Geology 103, 255-278
Yoo, C., Im, J., Park, S., Cho, D., 2020. Spatial Downscaling of MODIS Land Surface Temperature: Recent Research Trends, Challenges, and Future Directions. Korean Journal of Remote Sensing 36 (4), 609-626. https://doi.org/10.7780/kjrs.2020.36.4.9.
Yu, Z., Guo, X., Jorgensen, G., Vejre, H., 2017. How can Urban Green Spaces be Planned for Climate Adaptation in Subtropical Cities? Ecological Indicators 82, 152-162. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2017.07.002.
Zhou, D, Xiao, J, Bonafoni, S, Berger, C, Deilami, K, Zhou, Y, Frolking, S., Yao, R., Qiao, Z., Sobrino, JA., 2019. Satellite Remote Sensing of Surface Urban Heat Islands: Progress, Challenges, and Perspectives. Remote Sensing 11 (48), 1-36. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11010048.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Michael Stanley Peprah
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
The authors keep the copyrights of the published materials with them, but the authors are aggee to give an exclusive license to the publisher that transfers all publishing and commercial exploitation rights to the publisher. The puslisher then shares the content published in this journal under CC BY-NC-ND license.
